Revista Idiomática

The work we will present below was the final translation assignment for our class Translation Studies (semester 2023-2) taught by professor Alicia Gerena Meléndez, and consists of the translation of an entry written by the academic Luise Von Flotow, dedicated to feminist translation strategies, and which is part of the third edition of the Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (2020). This entry presents an explanation of the macro- and micro-strategies that have been used with or can be applied to translation projects with a feminist ideology, as well as a brief account of the main challenges and criticisms that the feminist theories of translation are currently facing.

We think that the work of translating this text is very important, first of all due to the scarce production of translations on Translation Studies from English or other languages into Spanish. Although it may seem paradoxical, theoretical discourses on translation are not systematically translated into other languages. On the other hand, we consider that the text, in addition to being a collective and collaborative final translation project that led us to apply concepts and theoretical discourses reviewed during the semester, addresses a topic that, for us, is worth sharing, especially because we are part of a Bachelor’s degree program predominantly made up of cisgender women and people from the LGBTIQA+ community. We also believe that it is essential that academic, dissemination and research material about this field of study reaches as many students, teachers and professionals as possible.

Before presenting and explaining our translation process and the criteria we followed, we will briefly discuss the author of the text, as we feel it is important to review her background, so that the text and our translation decisions can be better understood.

1. The author

Luise Von Flotow is a Full Professor at the School of Translation and Interpretation at the University of Ottawa. She was the director of this school for ten years. She teaches Translation Studies and is a literary translator from German and French into English. She has mainly translated texts written by cisgender women (Academia.edu). Von Flotow is also a member of the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies at this university, where she advises graduate students (uOttawa). Her name has gained fame thanks to her research work focusing on feminism and gender issues in translation, although she has also conducted research in the area of audiovisual translation, particularly in dubbing and subtitling, and has taken an interest in the role of translation as an instrument of cultural diplomacy (Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 2023).

Olga Castro defines Canadian feminist translation as a “current of work and thought that defends the incorporation of feminist ideology into translation due to the need to articulate new ways of expression, in order to dismantle the patriarchal burden of language and society” (2009: 64). This school emerged in Canada around the 1970s -although it did not gain popularity until the 1990s (Martín Ruano, 2008). It was a phenomenon that began with the literary production of Quebecois women authors, derived from the “secularization and modernization movement” (Lanoix, s.f.) of the state of Quebec called la révolution tranquille (Quiet Revolution). These texts addressed the political position between cisgender women and men, a revolutionary approach of the time (Jeanmaire, 2020). Von Flotow, along with feminist translator voices such as Howard Scott, Barbara Godard, Marlene Wildeman, Susanne de Lotbinière-Harwood, was part of the Canadian group at the forefront of the translation of these avant-garde feminist texts (Castro, 2009). In an interview conducted by Anthony Pym in 2017, Von Flotow asserted that it was around that time that her interest in feminist translation emerged, as the main questions of the moment were: what is Quebec looking for and what are Quebecois women looking for through these texts. Since then, her new focus has led her to publish books, numerous articles, encyclopedia entries, translations and reviews on the subject.

In her first book, Translation and Gender: Translating in the ‘Era of Feminism’ (1997), she compiles the work done by women who see translation as a tool to fight for the visibility of women and to criticize patriarchal language. Here, she explains the translation practices and strategies that have emerged with the aim of expressing and publicizing feminist ideologies through the practice of interlinguistic and editorial translation. Years later, in 2011, she published Translating Women, a book in which she demonstrated her interest in recovering the history and representation of women in academic writing (Pym, 2017: 3m50s).

2. Our translation process

The process of translating this text began with the assignment of the final translation exercise. We had the two weeks of final exams to complete all stages of the translation process and were given the option of choosing among several texts for the project. The group voted and the decision was to translate “Feminist translation strategies”. The main concern of our decision was to translate this material into Spanish for our fellow students or future students of the BA in Translation, in order to share it with them and make its reading faster and more accessible.

Immediately after the selection of the text, the latter was divided into small fragments of equal size that were then assigned to each of the 24 students for post-edition, as the first translation of the text was carried out with the help of the neural machine translation DeepL. The purpose of the post-editing was to detect, in a valid way, the errors of machine translation, and to correct these based on the set translation criteria and the characteristics of the assignment. The next step, after proposing the improved version of the output, was to carry out a peer review of our post-editing, which would then be reviewed by the teacher. During the peer review process, we identified and explained the errors found and gave feedback on positive aspects of the post-editing to the person in question.

Before starting the translation, the teacher gave us a series of guidelines to make our translation work formative, informative, serious and professional. Some of these recommendations were to:

consciously read both the source text in its entirety and the fragment we were to post-edit;
look up unknown vocabulary in monolingual dictionaries and, subsequently, in bilingual dictionaries as well as consult corpora and parallel texts for terminology;
carry out research on the author and implement a register analysis of the text (House, 2015);
apply theoretical concepts and discourses reviewed during the semester to set translation criteria;
make use of the same feminist translation strategies explained in the source text.

The translation criteria were established in a special session with the professor. As a group, we agreed upon the following:

1) to write a translation commentary;

2) to keep the textual quotations in English, as our target audience has knowledge of the language and can read them without any problem;

3) to use feminine forms (traductoras, editoras, etc.), since, at the time, we considered it was the most appropriate, based on our assignment and the target audience, both for the source text and the translation (however, this would change as we progressed in the revision of the translation);

4) to incorporate translation footnotes for cryptic issues, taking into account that our assignment is for future professionals in the field and could serve as a reference or documentary source for the resolution of a similar translation problem;

5) to explain terminology that we considered important for the target audience;

6) to follow the APA 7th edition1 standards for the format of quotations in the document;

7) finally, to follow these standards for adding and revising the bibliography of the source text, so that whoever reads our translation can consult it without having to refer to the source text.

After a last group session, and having carried out a register analysis of the author’s personal tenor (level of epistemic and emotional involvement of the author with her topic or discourse) and interpersonal tenor (relationship that the author establishes with her interlocutor and marks in the discourse that allows us to see the type of audience to which the text is addressed), the doubt arose as to whether all the translators mentioned by von Flotow should be treated with generic feminine forms. On the other hand, the doubt of using only feminine forms also arose because our main target audience are our fellow students, some of them non-binary, trans, etc. Therefore, we considered it more appropriate to use a wording with neutral or non-binary forms, even more inclusive. So as not to impose any criteria and to avoid future controversies, it was agreed to send an email to the author. Firstly, we would ask her if she agreed with us using a wording with non-binary or neutral forms in Spanish to refer to people in the text. Secondly, we would inquire if she had any comment on anything or detail she would like us to take into account with respect to our translation. To our good fortune and surprise, the author’s response was prompt and kind, so we agreed to follow her suggestions and, this way, make the target text match the ideas that the source text sought to convey. With this in mind, we decided to change the use of the generic feminine for the use of a neutral and non-binary forms of writing (e.g., les profesionales de la edición y la traducción, las personas traductoras, la audiencia, el público lector, etc.).

Finally, after implementing all the aforementioned steps, we proceeded to correct the translation so as to put all the fragments together and format it for the final delivery.

3. Translation strategies and decisions implemented

The feminist translation strategies used for this assignment are justified, on the one hand, by the target audience (our undergraduate fellow students or future students) and, on the other, by the intention of implementing some of the strategies mentioned in the source text, in order to learn how to do so in future translation projects that might require it. Hence, the most important translation micro-strategy we employed was the use of non-binary forms ending in -e (nouns, adjectives and pronouns) only to refer to persons or collectives, in addition to using epicene grammatical forms when available. For the application of this strategy and to make it a systematic measure, we relied on manuals such as the book titled Usos y estrategias de discurso incluyente no binario (Uses and strategies of non-binary inclusive discourse, Ávila et al., 2023). This rewriting criterion served to maintain the author’s discourse, but also to include both our main audience and any other person who might read the text, as well as all people with different gender identities. In the source text the author stresses the importance of the visibility of the different gender identities and ideologies and their inclusion in the writing of texts. By establishing communication with the author, this practice was reaffirmed, and we were given an even clearer perspective on the target audience of the entry: anyone interested in feminist translation, which directed us to make use of an inclusive non-binary discourse in Spanish

Another one of the strategies implemented for a feminist translation (a macro-strategy), which was presented by Von Flotow in the source text, was the writing of this translation commentary to introduce the author, explain the translation process of our project and present our translation criteria, as well as the problems we faced, among other aspects. This decision is based on the need to make visible the trajectory of the translator scholar and her academic work, as well as the difficulties we may face when carrying out a feminist translation. For these reasons, this commentary becomes a space of academic mediation for the project, in which the readers can learn more about Luise Von Flotow’s work and the explained implementation of her discourse and concepts in a specific translation project.

Finally, another one of the strategies applied in our project was to add footnotes with bibliographical data of Spanish translations of the intertextual references in English and other particularities of the source text. For example, on occasions the different names given to feminist strategies are not mentioned by the author; however, we found them in parallel texts and added them as footnotes. This strategy was proposed because we consider that, since it is a target text for academic purposes, it is important to provide additional information that facilitates the understanding of the text and serves as a tool to help the target audience expand their knowledge on the subject. In addition, it contributes to making the work of translators and Translation Studies scholars in the Spanish-speaking world more visible.

Regarding the treatment of terminology, we decided to use the terminological equivalents proper to the field of translation without explaining them, given that the target audience of the assignment is our peers, translation students, and, therefore, we assume that this audience has previous knowledge of these notions, such as: source text, target text, etc. In this regard, we feel it is important to share that, once the project started, we observed that the automatic translator DeepL was not able to detect the specialized terminology, and that, lacking the context of the assignment, it translated it in a way that was not very accurate or valid in certain contexts. For example, we replaced the terms “lengua original” and “texto original” (both provided by DeepL) by “lengua fuente” and “texto fuente”, as these are more used and accurate terms in our immediate academic community; moreover, in our field of study, the Spanish adjective “original” in the machine proposal (“texto original”) may carry negative connotations such as, for example, not considering relay translation, retranslation or indirect translation of texts as part of the translation practices.

When investigating the different translations into Spanish that have been used for the names of the strategies, we realized that there is no standardization, thus, we found terms such as suplementación or compensación, secuestro, metatextualidad, pacto especular, neutralización o generalización, etc. This presented a problem, because, in some cases, the author only explains how each strategy works, instead of explicitly naming them. That is why we decided to add translation footnotes to explain these strategies or to refer to other texts in Spanish that discuss them. Among the terms we clarify, mentioned by the scholar Olga Castro in her article “Género y traducción: elementos discursivos para una reescritura feminista” (2010), is suplementación, which compensates for the differences between languages in order to reproduce meanings of the source text; this is mentioned in the text as a micro-strategy and is developed in the corresponding section. On the other hand, the metatextualidad strategy includes paratexts such as prologues and translation footnotes. Secuestro is the practice of appropriating a text with a patriarchal discourse and rewriting it through a feminist ideology; this strategy includes several micro-strategies, such as the change of the generic masculine for constructions that make women or the different gender identities visible in the discourse.

With respect to terms that were written in other languages unknown to us, such as Arabic or Bulgarian, we kept them as they were in the source text and added in the latter case a footnote with relevant information for their understanding.

However, as for the English terms used by the author to illustrate the difficulty of translating them into other languages, we decided to keep them in English, as the explanation of this difficulty stems precisely from the concept that these forms have in this language and their source cultures. Examples of this are the terms retained through borrowing: gender, empowerment, agency and woman / women studies.

Throughout the text, it is possible to find multiple intertextual references, since Von Flotow relies on other works to explain and exemplify different concepts and strategies. Therefore, during the translation process, we decided to keep the titles of the works cited in the source language within the body of the text. We made this decision so as to standardize the overall format, especially since not all cited texts have an official translation in the target language. However, upon exhaustive documentation of each of the works cited, we found that some of them already had a Spanish translation and, therefore, in these cases we opted to add the Spanish translations along with their titles in a footnote.

We also identified other special cases which we had to treat differently. In almost all the works cited, the author is referring to their translation into other languages, but rarely mentions the title of the translation she is referring to. Therefore, when the title was indicated, as in the case of Lettres d’une autre (Gauvin, 1984), in which Von Flotow cited Susanne de Lotbinière-Harwood’s English translation Letters from an Other (1898), we decided to keep the quotation provided by the author and not just leave the title in the source language, as doing so would completely change the direct reference the author is making. Another case was related to references to religious texts; for example, the case of the Qur’an, in which we decided to keep the Spanish translation (Corán) directly in the body of the text and not add it in a footnote, in view of the fact that it is a translated title already coined and the potential readers know it that way.

As students of translation, we know that quotations are essential in texts, as they provide support and backing for the ideas, arguments and assertions presented therein. “Feminist translation strategies” is no exception. Luise von Flotow uses quotations and textual references to recover the voices of the translators who provided their ideas and developed translation strategies. That is why, for this project we decided to keep the quotations in the source language for several reasons. Lack of time was a factor that prevented us from giving them an adequate treatment and carrying out all the research they entail, in that, first of all, we would have had to look for the published translations of the works cited in the source text into Spanish, so as to, in turn, cite them in the target text. However, since they were not translated into Spanish, a translation of the quotations would have to be carried out, but this would have to be done by researching the texts and discourses in question as exhaustively as possible in order to achieve a valid result of the assignment, which was difficult for us, considering that our deadline for the project was very close. In addition, we found it somewhat unnecessary to translate them, taking into account that our main target audience, our fellow students, read in English, given that the BA in Translation is a degree with entry prerequisites, consisting of an intermediate-advanced level English exam (B1+ of the CEFR). Furthermore, we consider that keeping the quotations in English allows these readers to directly access the source content.

Luise Von Flotow took special care with the treatment of her bibliography in the entry. In addition to conscientiously citing each author, translator and scholar to whom she refers, at the end of the encyclopedia entry, she provides an annotated bibliography with complementary readings for those interested in reading more on the subject. For the same reasons mentioned above in the handling of quotations, we thought it best to leave the references to the articles in English and translate what is commented on each of these works. As a group, we believe that it is important to continue to know and disseminate the work of translators or Translation Studies scholars who are dedicated to this branch of the field, due to the fact that their ideas and achievements in this area have been internationally recognized.

4. Translation challenges

Among the challenges we faced during the translation of the text, we found the presence of borrowings from languages not necessarily known to our target audience, such as Bulgarian. We do not know this language either and did not have native speakers or translators who could help us in this regard, and for this reason we decided not to translate the term социален пол or социо-пол; however, we wrote in a footnote its approximation in meaning, as well as its pronunciation from a Cyrillic alphabet’s transliteration to our Latin alphabet. In the case of the title Egalias døtre, in order to guide the reader, we made it explicit that it is a novel by Norwegian feminist writer Gerd Brantenberg. Since it is not a term or concept (as the Bulgarian term is) and thanks to its relative closeness to our alphabet, its translation was not so necessary inside the text either. Finally, in the specific case of al-jender, the author explains the translation process of this term in the text, so it did not require a translation.

The management of the translation project also posed difficulties, as, being a class assignment, there were many people involved in the post-editing and revision of the target text. This was also one of the reasons why the choice of translation criteria was complicated: it is complicated for everyone to agree and reach a consensus. However, this situation provided us with an opportunity to improve our interpersonal skills as classmates and future professionals.

5. Learning opportunities and conclusions

In conclusion, the analytical reading and translation of “Feminist translation strategies” by Luise von Flotow gave us the opportunity to acquire various insights, such as new strategies that we can employ appropriately in certain translations with specific assignments. Furthermore, by translating this text, we were able to put into practice our knowledge of feminist translation, the understanding and application of micro and macro strategies to an assignment as real as possible, as well as the questioning and re-evaluation of this type of texts.

Thanks to this project, we understood that the study of feminist translation is an approach within the field of Translation Studies that addresses not only gender inequalities, but also seeks to give visibility to the voices and experiences of all groups and communities that historically, socially, economically and culturally have been discriminated against and underrepresented.

From the observation of the discursive marks of depersonalization and modalization, the analysis of the register of the source text allowed us to understand the way in which the author addresses her audience, her position in relation to the topic and the language she uses, in order to better weigh up our choices when translating.

During the translation process we also implemented other concepts discussed in class, such as the application of ethics in the translation of this and other types of texts at all levels. This implied prior research on the author and her discourse, as the main idea was to respect it. This allowed us to understand several factors related to the text, so that we could make a more informed decision on the use of inclusive writing by means of non-binary forms in its wording.

We also realized that, although neural machine translation can be a great support when translating, as it improves the speed at which a translation is delivered, it still has certain limitations: it does not know aspects such as culture, context, the precise characteristics of the assignment and the general, contextual and cotextual specialized terminology. We can use it, as long as it is done in a responsible and ethical manner. However, we still need the human factor that translators represent, as we bring a great deal of linguistic, cultural, contextual and, above all, ethical knowledge to create a product that guarantees a valid translation.

This project was very enriching for our training as future translation professionals, as we exercised both our theoretical and practical knowledge to bring it to a successful conclusion: we reflected, analyzed and reworked both the justification of this commentary and the translation, at all levels and stages. We also realized that it was essential to take into account all the characteristics of the assignment and the style we were working with in order to make the right decisions and adapt our translation so that our target audience would receive the best version of this text, despite the short time we had to complete it. This knowledge and practice not only served us well for this project, they will also serve us well for future assignments in which we may have the possibility of using one or more of the feminist translation strategies reviewed and applied here.

Notas

1 This criterion changed for the publication of the work in the journal Idiomática, since we obviously had to follow its guidelines.